|
|
Open Access
Copyright: The authors. This article is an open access
article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0) which permits unrestricted use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly
cited.
Research (Published
online : 01-10-2013)
6. Detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in
powdered infant and follow-up formulae in Egypt - Nagah Mohammed Saad,
Wallaa Farouk Amin and Eman Mokhtar Shaker
Veterinary World, 6(11): 862-864
doi:
10.14202/vetworld.2013.862-864
Abstract
Aim: To examine powdered
infant formula (PIF) and follow-up formula (FUF) for the presence
of toxigenic Clostridium difficile.
Materials and Methods: A total of 100 random samples of PIF
and FUF, 50 samples each, from various pharmacies and supermarkets
located in Assiut city were collected during 2008-2010.
Results: Our results show that 16 out of 100 (16%) examined
samples of PIF and FUF were contaminated with C. difficile; 4 (8%)
and 12 (24%) of the examined PIF and FUF samples tested positive
for C. difficile, respectively. Only two (16.67%) isolates of C.
difficile from the examined FUF were toxigenic, while the isolates
from the PIF samples were not toxigenic.
Conclusions: The presence of C. difficile in PIF and FUF
samples suggests that there is a high potential for the
transmission of C. difficile through these products. Thus, proper
preparation and handling of these products is required to reduce
the risk of the illnesses arising due to C. difficile.
Key words: Clostridium difficile, follow-up formula, latex
agglutination, powdered infant formula, toxigenic
References
|
1. American Academy of Pediatrics (2013) Clostridium difficile
Infection in Infants and Children. Committee on infectious
diseases at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/1/196.full.html.
Accessed on 25-06-2013. |
|
|
2. Kuijper, E.J., Coignard, B. and Tull, P. (2006) Emergence
of Clostridium difficile associated disease in North America
and Europe. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12 (Suppl. 6): 2–18.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01580.x
PMid:16965399 |
|
|
3. Gerding, D.N. (1989) Diseases associated with Clostridium
difficile infection. Ann. Intern. Med. 110: 255-257.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-110-4-255
PMid:2643913 |
|
|
4. Knoop, F.C., Owens, M and, Crocker, I.C. (1993) Clostridium
difficile: Clinical disease and diagnosis. Clin. Microbiol.
Rev. 6 (3): 251-265.
PMid:8358706 PMCid:PMC358285 |
|
|
5. Giannasca, P.J. and Warny, M. (2004) Active and passive
immunization against Clostridium difficile diarrhoea and
colitis. Vaccine Journal. 22(7): 848–856.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.11.030
PMid:15040937 |
|
|
6. Kelly, C.P., Pothoulakis, C. and LaMont, J.T. (1994)
Clostridium difficile colitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 257–262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199401273300406
PMid:8043060 |
|
|
|
7. Rousseau, C., Poilane, I., Pontual, L.D., Maherault, A., Le
Monnier, A., Collignon, A. (2012) Clostridium difficile
carriage in healthy infants in the community: A potential
reservoir for pathogenic strains. Clin. Infect. Dis. 10: 1093. |
|
|
8. Collignon, A., Ticchi, L., Depitre, C., Gaudelus, J.,
Delmee, M. and Corthier, G. (1993) Heterogenecity of
Clostridium difficile isolates from infants. Eur. J. Pediat.
152:319-322.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01956743
PMid:8482281 |
|
|
9. Cooperstock, M.S., Steffen, E., Yolken, R. and Onderdonk,
A. (1982) Clostridium difficile in normal infants and sudden
infant death syndrome: an association with infant formula
feeding. Pediatrics 70 (1): 91-95.
PMid:7088640 |
|
|
10. Simango, C. (2006) Prevalence of Clostridium difficile in
the environment in a rural community in Zimbabwe. Trans. R.
Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 100: 1146–1150.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.01.009
PMid:16698054 |
|
|
|
11. McFree, R.B. and Abdel Sayed, G.G. (2009) Clostridium
difficile. Dis. Mon. 55 (7): 449-470. |
|
|
12. Kim, J.W., Lee, K.L., Jeong, J.B., Kim, B.G., Shin, S. and
Kim, J.S. (2010) Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for
recurrence of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea. World
J. Gastroenterol. 16 (28): 3573-3577.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v16.i28.3573
PMid:20653067 PMCid:PMC2909558 |
|
|
13. Rodriguez-Palacios. A., Staempfli, H.R., Duffield, T.and
Weese, J.S. (2007) Clostridium difficile in retail ground
meat, Canada. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13: 485–487.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1303.060988
PMid:17552108 PMCid:PMC2725909 |
|
|
14. Jöbstl, M., Heuberger, S., Indra, A., Nepf, R., Köfer, J.,
Wagner, M. (2010) Clostridium difficile in raw products of
animal origin. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 138: 172-175.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.12.022
PMid:20079946 |
|
|
15. Indra, A., Lassnig, H., Baliko, N., Much, P., Fiedler, A.,
Huhulescu, S. and Allerberger, F. (2009) Clostridium difficile:
a new zoonotic agent? Wiener klinische Wochenschrift 121:
91–95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00508-008-1127-x
PMid:19280132 |
|
|
|
16. Planche, T., Aghaizu, A., Holliman, R., Riley, P.,
Poloniecki, J., Breathnach, A. and Krishna, S. (2008)
Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection by toxin
detection kits: a systematic review. The Lancet Infec. Dis. 8
(12): 777-784. |
|
|
|
17. CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commision) (1981) Codex standard
for infant formula and formulas for special medical purposes
intended for infants. Codex Stan 72–1981, Section A. Available
at: http://www.codexalimentarius.org/input/download/standards/288/CXS_072e.pdf.
Accessed on 23- 06-2013. |
|
|
|
18. CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commision) (1987) Codex standard
for follow up formula. Codex Stan 156-1987. Available at:
http://www.codexalimentarius.org/input/download/standards/293/CXS_156e-pdf.
Accessed on 25- 06-2013. |
|
|
19. McFarland, L.V. (2002) What`s lurking under the bed?
Persistance and predominance of particular Clostridium
difficile strains in a hospital and the potential role of
environmental contamination. Infection Control and Hospital
Epidemiology 23: 639–640.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/501986
PMid:12452289 |
|
|
20. Weese JS., Avery BP., Rousseau J., Reid-Smith RJ.(2009)
Detection and enumeration of Clostridium difficile spores in
retail beef and pork. Appl Environ Microbiol 75(15):
5009–5011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00480-09
PMid:19525267 PMCid:PMC2725490 |
|
|
21. Songer, I.G., Trinh, H.T., Killgore, G.E., Thompson, A.D.,
McDonald, I.G. and Limbago, B.M. (2009) Clostridium difficile
in retail meat products, USA. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15(5)
819-821.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1505.081071
PMid:19402980 PMCid:PMC2687047 |
|
|
22. Von Abercron SM, Karlsson F, Wigh GT, Wierup M, Krovacek
K. (2009) Low occurrence of Clostridium difficile in retail
ground meat in Sweden. J Food Prot 72(8): 1732–1734.
PMid:19722410 |
|
|
23. Hannah GL. and Brandi L (2010) Clostridium difficile in
Food and Domestic Animals: A New Foodborne Pathogen? Clinical
Infectious Diseases 51(5):577–582.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/655692
PMid:20642351 |
|
|
24. De Boer, E., Zwartkruis-Nahuis, A., Heuvelink, A.,
Harmanus, C. and Kuijper, E. (2011) Prevalence of Clostridium
difficile in retailed meat in The Netherlands. Int. J. Food
Microbiol. 144(3): 561-564.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.11.007
PMid:21131085 |
|
|
25. Johnson, S. and Gerding, D. (1998) Clostridium difficile
associated diarrhea. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26:1027-1034.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520276
PMid:9597221 |
|
|
26. Bartlett, J.G. (1997) Clostridium difficile infection.
Pathophysiology and diagnosis. Semin. Gastrointest. Dis. 8:
12-21.
PMid:9000498 |
|
|
27. Rupnik, M. (2007) Is Clostridium difficile-associated
infec¬tion a potentially zoonotic and foodborne disease? Clin.
Microbiol. Infect. 13: 457–459.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01687.x
PMid:17331126 |
|
|
