Research Article | 10 May 2026

Bacterial contamination and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolated from raw pork and chicken meat from slaughterhouses and retail markets in Kenya

Metrine Namalwa Nyanja1, Christine Minoo Mbindyo2, Daniel Wambua Wanja3, Jackson Ombui1, Getrude Shepelo Peter4, Felix M Kibegwa5, George C Gitao2, and Charles Drago Kato6Show more
VETERINARY WORLD | Article No. 5 | pg no. 1867-1887 | Vol. 19, Issue 5 | DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2026.1867-1887
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Abstract

          
Background and Aim: Foodborne diseases caused by bacterial contamination of meat remain a major global public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Escherichia coli and Salmonella are among the most important zoonotic pathogens associated with raw meat, and their increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) further complicates treatment and control. In Kenya, limited data exist on bacterial contamination and resistance patterns along the meat value chain, especially in peri-urban and rural settings. This study aimed to quantify bacterial contamination levels and determine the prevalence and AMR profiles of E. coli and Salmonella species isolated from raw chicken meat and pork collected from slaughterhouses and retail outlets in Murang’a County, Kenya. 
Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between November 2024 and June 2025. A total of 320 meat samples (105 chicken and 215 pork) were collected from slaughterhouses, butcher shops, supermarkets, and public wet markets. Total viable counts (TVC) were determined using standard plate count methods. Isolation and identification of E. coli and Salmonella species were performed using conventional culture techniques and confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization–time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method following Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) indices and resistance phenotypes were also determined. 
Results: High levels of bacterial contamination were observed, with mean TVC exceeding recommended limits (6.45 log₁₀ CFU/cm² for chicken and 6.39 log₁₀ CFU/cm² for pork). Overall prevalence of E. coli was 61.6%, while Salmonella species were detected in 7.2% of samples. AMR was widespread, particularly in E. coli, with high resistance to ampicillin (95.3%), amoxicillin–clavulanate (78.7%), gentamicin (72.7%), and tetracycline (72.0%). Multidrug resistance was detected in 87.3% of E. coli isolates, with 16.0% classified as extensively drug-resistant and one isolate identified as possible pandrug-resistant. All isolates exhibited MAR indices ≥0.1, indicating exposure to high-risk antimicrobial environments. Salmonella isolates showed the highest resistance to ciprofloxacin (86.4%) and lower multidrug resistance (13.6%). 
Conclusion: The study demonstrates substantial bacterial contamination and high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in raw meat along the Kenyan meat value chain. These findings highlight the urgent need for strengthened hygiene practices, improved food safety regulation, and enhanced AMR surveillance within a One Health framework to mitigate public health risks. 
          
Keywords: antimicrobial resistance, Escherichia coli, food safety, Kenya, meat contamination, multidrug resistance, pork and chicken, Salmonella.